Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a growing concern in Nigeria and globally. Although women are at greater risk of IPV, men are also affected, but this is less reported.
This study sought to determine the prevalence and pattern of IPV among the respondents and to compare the pattern of IPV among the male and female respondents.
The study was conducted in six towns (local government headquarters) across the three senatorial districts in Edo State, Southern Nigeria.
The study was a descriptive, cross-sectional, community-based study. A multistage sampling technique was used in selecting 1227 respondents from Edo State, Southern Nigeria. A semistructured, interviewer-administered questionnaire and the Extended Hurt, Insult, Threaten, Scream (E-HITS) tool were used to collect data, which were analysed with Epi Info version 7.1.2.0.
The study found an IPV prevalence of 37.7% among the respondents (confidence interval [CI]: 95%, odds ratio [OR]: 0.169–0.294). The mean age was 38 ± 12 and respondents were mostly female (725, 59.1%), married (770, 62.8%) and unemployed (406, S33.1%), with a tertiary level of education (766, 62.4%). Intimate partner violence was significantly higher among women compared with men (95% CI: 4.474, OR: 3.425–5.846). The pattern of IPV showed a lower OR between sexual and physical IPV (95% CI: 0.276, OR: 0.157–0.485). There was a higher likelihood of IPV among married women (95% CI: 1.737, OR: 1.279–2.358).
There is a need to improve the socio-economic status of the Nigerian populace, especially women. Healthy, nonviolent and safe relationships should be promoted in communities by signalling what is socially unacceptable and strengthening sanctions against perpetrators.
Intimate partner violence is a global health problem.
The World Health Organization defines IPV as behaviour by an intimate partner or ex-partner that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviours.
Intimate partner violence is a common social and behavioural issue with negative effects on health, child, family and society. It can lead to severe physical injuries, chronic pain, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal tendencies and substance use disorders.
Intimate partner violence tends to be repetitive, with an escalation in frequency and severity over time. Children who witnessed IPV in their parents are more prone to anger, fear, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and conduct problems.
Factors that increase the risk of IPV include alcohol and drug use, young age, being married, stress, unequal power in relationships, gender-inequitable masculinities and harmful attitudes to gender relations that result in female disempowerment and marginalisation, lower educational status, unemployment, psychiatric illness, a history of violent relationships in childhood and academic and financial under-achievement.
Primary care physicians play a role from a preventive framework, identify the risk factors and at-risk behaviours, and give holistic care to the survivor. Strategies for identifying IPV include asking relevant questions in patient histories, screening during periodic health examinations and case finding in patients with suggestive signs or symptoms. This study therefore seeks to determine the prevalence and pattern of IPV in Edo State, southern Nigeria.
The study was a descriptive cross-sectional community-based study.
Edo State is one of the six states in South-South Nigeria. The state has a population of 3 233 366 with 1 918 483 (59.3%) aged 15–64 years, according to the last national census held in 2006, which was projected to increase to 4 235 600 by 2016.
The sample size was determined by using the formula:
Thus, the minimum sample size required was 389 per senatorial district, giving a total of 1168 respondents from the six cities or towns in the three senatorial districts. A total of 1227 respondents were recruited: 397 from Edo North, 414 from Edo South and 416 from Edo Central senatorial districts, respectively.
Men and women between the ages of 18 and 65 years who were in an intimate relationship, irrespective of whether they lived together or not, that had lasted for more than one year and who consented to participate in the study were systematically selected for the research.
Persons with cognitive impairment and those who were too sick to participate were excluded from the study.
A multistage sampling technique was used to select respondents. A simple random sampling technique was used to select four wards from each LGA and five streets from each ward. A systematic sampling technique was then used to select 11 houses in each street. A household was selected by simple random sampling from each house, if there were more than one household in a house that met the criteria. Where no household met the criteria in a house, the next house was used. This was done until the required sample size was achieved.
A pretested semistructured questionnaire was used to obtain biodata and other information from respondents. The Extended Hurt, Insult, Threaten, Scream (E-HITS) tool, a validated screening tool for IPV, was used to assess the prevalence and pattern of IPV among respondents.
The questionnaires and other instruments were self-administered by the researcher with the aid of trained research assistants. The content was explained to respondents in the language they understood. Privacy and confidentiality were ensured throughout the interviews as respondents were interviewed alone, and each questionnaire was independently reviewed every day. The study lasted for six months, from July 2020 to December 2020.
Responses were entered into Epi Info version 7.1.2.0 and analysed. Frequencies, percentages and charts were used to describe the pattern of IPV among the respondents, while chi-square and multivariate analysis were used to determine the risk of IPV in the respondents.
Ethical clearance was obtained from the Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital (ISTH) Research and Ethics Committee (ref. no. ISTH/HREC/20193010/048). The procedure was clearly explained to the respondents and only those who gave informed consent in writing were selected for the study. Respondents were assured of data safety and that information obtained would be used strictly for the purpose of this research and would not be shared with third parties.
A total of 1227 respondents from six LGAs across the three senatorial districts in Edo State participated in the study. Their ages ranged from 18 to 65 years, with a mean age of 38 ± 12. Respondents were mostly female (725, 59.1%), married (770, 62.8%), unemployed (406, 33.1%), with a tertiary level of education (766, 62.4%) and earned between the national minimum wage of N30000.00 (Nigerian naira) and N100000.00 monthly (757, 61.7%).
The sociodemographic characteristics are summarised in
Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents.
Variables | Frequency ( |
Percentage |
---|---|---|
< 30 | 362 | 29.5 |
30–45 | 535 | 43.6 |
> 45 | 330 | 26.9 |
Female | 725 | 59.1 |
Male | 502 | 40.9 |
Currently married | 770 | 62.8 |
Single | 311 | 25.3 |
Separated or divorced | 111 | 9.0 |
Widowed | 35 | 2.9 |
Bini | 354 | 28.8 |
Esan | 316 | 25.8 |
Afenmai | 304 | 24.8 |
Hausa | 71 | 5.8 |
Yoruba | 69 | 5.6 |
Ibo | 65 | 5.3 |
Others | 48 | 3.9 |
No formal education | 59 | 4.8 |
Primary education | 63 | 5.2 |
Secondary education | 339 | 27.6 |
Tertiary education | 766 | 62.4 |
Government employee | 255 | 20.8 |
Nongovernment employee | 280 | 22.8 |
Self-employed | 286 | 23.3 |
Unemployed | 406 | 33.1 |
< N30000.00 | 237 | 19.3 |
N30000.00–N100000.00 | 757 | 61.7 |
> N100000.00 | 233 | 19.0 |
N, Nigerian naira.
A total of 462 respondents reported being victims of IPV giving an IPV prevalence of 37.7%. Out of these, 368 (30.0%) women and 94 (7.7%) men were victims of IPV. The prevalence of IPV for both genders is illustrated in
Prevalence of intimate partner violence among female and male respondents.
The pattern of IPV among respondents is illustrated in
Pattern of intimate partner violence among respondents (
Association between intimate partner violence and sociodemographic characteristics of the female respondents (
Variable | IPV ( |
No IPV ( |
Total ( |
|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% | % | % | ||||||
23.146 | 0.000 |
|||||||
≤ 30 | 89 | 37.9 | 146 | 62.1 | 235 | 100.0 | ||
31–45 | 164 | 56.7 | 122 | 43.3 | 289 | 100.0 | ||
> 45 | 115 | 56.4 | 89 | 43.6 | 204 | 100.0 | ||
12.611 | 0.000 |
|||||||
Currently married | 257 | 55.7 | 204 | 44.3 | 461 | 100.0 | ||
Currently unmarried |
111 | 42.0 | 153 | 58.0 | 264 | 100.0 | ||
1.206 | 0.272 | |||||||
Tertiary education | 211 | 49.1 | 219 | 50.9 | 430 | 100.0 | ||
Below tertiary |
157 | 53.2 | 138 | 46.8 | 295 | 100.0 | ||
46.418 | 0.000 |
|||||||
Government employee | 89 | 58.2 | 64 | 41.8 | 153 | 100.0 | ||
Nongovernment employee | 124 | 68.1 | 58 | 31.9 | 182 | 100.0 | ||
Self-employed |
60 | 35.5 | 109 | 64.5 | 169 | 100.0 | ||
Unemployed |
95 | 43.0 | 126 | 57.0 | 221 | 100.0 | ||
6.215 | 0.045 |
|||||||
< N30000.00 | 72 | 60.5 | 47 | 39.5 | 119 | 100.0 | ||
N30000.00 – N100000.00 | 247 | 49.7 | 250 | 50.3 | 497 | 100.0 | ||
> N100000.00 | 49 | 45.0 | 60 | 55.0 | 109 | 100.0 |
IPV, intimate partner violence.
, Statistically significant.
, Single, separated, divorced, widowed but with a sexual partner for the past year;
, Secondary, primary and no formal education;
, Farmers, traders, artisans;
, Housewives, students, etc., dependent on others.
Association between intimate partner violence and sociodemographic characteristics of the male respondents (
Variable | IPV ( |
No IPV ( |
Total ( |
|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% | % | % | ||||||
0.217 | 0.897 | |||||||
≤ 30 | 28 | 17.7 | 130 | 82.3 | 158 | 100.0 | ||
31–45 | 34 | 18.7 | 148 | 81.3 | 182 | 100.0 | ||
> 45 | 32 | 19.8 | 130 | 80.2 | 162 | 100.0 | ||
19.675 | 0.000 |
|||||||
Currently married | 39 | 12.6 | 270 | 87.4 | 309 | 100.0 | ||
Currently unmarried |
55 | 28.5 | 138 | 71.5 | 193 | 100.0 | ||
1.999 | 0.157 | |||||||
Tertiary education | 52 | 15.5 | 284 | 84.5 | 336 | 100.0 | ||
Below tertiary |
42 | 25.3 | 124 | 74.7 | 166 | 100.0 | ||
14.233 | 0.002 |
|||||||
Government employee | 30 | 29.4 | 72 | 70.6 | 102 | 100.0 | ||
Nongovernment employee | 9 | 9.2 | 89 | 90.8 | 98 | 100.0 | ||
Self-employed |
24 | 20.5 | 93 | 79.5 | 117 | 100.0 | ||
Unemployed |
31 | 16.8 | 154 | 83.2 | 185 | 100.0 | ||
1.025 | 0.599 | |||||||
< N30 000.00 | 8 | 15.4 | 44 | 84.6 | 52 | 100.0 | ||
N30000.00–N100000.00 | 67 | 19.9 | 269 | 80.1 | 336 | 100.0 | ||
> N100000.00 | 19 | 16.7 | 95 | 83.3 | 114 | 100.0 |
IPV, intimate partner violence.
, Statistically significant.
, Single, separated, divorced, widowed but with a sexual partner for the past year;
, Secondary, primary and no formal education;
, Farmers, traders and artisans;
, Housewives, students, etc. dependent on others.
The pattern of IPV among victims is tabulated in
Pattern of intimate partner violence among female and male victims.
Variable | Yes |
No |
Total |
|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% | % | % | ||||||
38.934 | 0.000 |
|||||||
Physical abuse | 313 | 85.1 | 55 | 14.9 | 368 | 100.0 | ||
Psychological abuse |
295 | 80.2 | 73 | 19.8 | 368 | 100.0 | ||
Sexual abuse | 351 | 95.4 | 17 | 4.6 | 368 | 100.0 | ||
5.081 | 0.788 | |||||||
Physical abuse | 64 | 68.1 | 30 | 31.9 | 94 | 100.0 | ||
Psychological abuse |
58 | 61.7 | 36 | 38.3 | 94 | 100.0 | ||
Sexual abuse | 49 | 52.5 | 45 | 47.5 | 94 | 100.0 |
, Statistically significant
, Insult, threaten and scream components of E-HITS.
Logistic regression of prevalence and pattern of intimate partner violence in men and women.
Factors | Odds ratio | 95% CI for odds ratio |
||
---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | |||
4.474 | 0.000 | 3.425 | 5.846 | |
Female | 0.276 | 0.000 | 0.157 | 0.485 |
Male | 1.959 | 0.788 | 1.083 | 3.546 |
Female | 1.737 | 0.000 | 1.279 | 2.358 |
Male | 0.362 | 0.000 | 0.229 | 0.573 |
IPV, intimate partner violence.
A logistic regression on the prevalence and pattern of IPV among couples in Edo State revealed a significantly higher prevalence of IPV among women compared with men (95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.474, odds ratio [OR]: 3.425–5.846). The pattern of IPV showed a lower OR between sexual and physical IPV (95% CI: 0.276, OR: 0.157–0.485). There was a higher likelihood of IPV among married women (95% CI: 1.737, OR: 1.279–2.358), and there were lower odds for married men (95% CI: 0.362, OR: 0.229–0.5736).
The respondents represented in this study were men and women between the ages of 18 and 65 years who were in an intimate relationship that had lasted for more than one year.
More than half of the respondents were female, most of whom were married and unemployed. The socio-economic status of women is a predictor of IPV. This is as a result of their low-income status and unstable employment and also because a majority of these women mostly have to depend on their spouses for their needs and upkeep.
This study found an IPV prevalence of 37.7%. Out of these, 79.7% were female, with the remaining 20.3% of victims being male. This is consistent with previous studies that revealed that IPV affects both genders.
This study’s prevalence was found to be a little lower than some previous findings, such as the global lifetime prevalence of IPV among women of 33%
This study revealed the pattern of IPV with regard to certain sociodemographic variables among women, such as marital status, age, level of education and occupation. The study showed that there is a significant relationship between IPV and age (31–45 years), marital status (married), occupation (nongovernment employees) and monthly income (earned less than N30 000.00 (Nigerian naira), national minimum wage) among women, while among the male respondents, only marital status and occupation were found to have a significant relationship with IPV. However, age and monthly income were found to be insignificant among male respondents, while this level of education had no significant relationship among respondents. The findings of this study are in line with a study conducted by Kishor and Johnson, which revealed the prevalence of IPV based on the characteristics of respondents that were recorded in ranges.
The occurrence of IPV can be linked with certain predictors. Therefore, IPV interventions must consider these predisposing factors such as marital status, age, occupation and monthly income, with a special focus on women who are currently married, age 31–45 years, nongovernment employees and less than N30 000.00 national minimum wage earners; focus should also be placed on unmarried men and government employees. This group of people should be prioritised when planning an intervention.
Age is a significant predictor that predisposes women generally to IPV, while marital status and occupation are contributory factors that cut across both genders and make individuals susceptible to IPV. Hence, there is a need to improve the socio-economic status of the Nigerian populace, especially women. Also, the mass media can be used to change social norms and mobilise community-wide changes to influence gender roles and individual attitudes to IPV. Society should be sensitised on the possibility of IPV among men, avoid stigmatisation against such victims and thus encourage both male and female victims to speak up. Healthy, nonviolent and safe relationships should be promoted in communities by signalling what is socially unacceptable and strengthening sanctions against perpetrators. As the risk of IPV is highest in younger women, schools are also an important setting for the primary prevention activities, with the potential to address issues of relationships, gender roles, power and coercion within youth violence and bullying programmes.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
T.I.A.O. conceived of the presented idea and developed the theory and performed the computations. T.O.S., T.I. and M.O.M. verified the analytical methods. T.I.A.O. and M.O.M. conducted and supervised the findings of this work. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, T.I.A.O., upon reasonable request.
The views expressed in the submitted article are those of the authors and not an official position of the affiliate institutions.